Advances in ۳D Bioprinting for Tendon Regeneration: Current Achievements and Future Directions

Tendon injuries are a significant clinical challenge due to the tissue’s limited regenerative capacity and poor vascularization. Traditional treatments, such as autografts, allografts, and synthetic scaffolds, often fail to restore tendon function, leading to high re-injury rates. ۳D bioprinting has emerged as a revolutionary approach for tendon tissue engineering, allowing the fabrication of customized, biomimetic constructs with controlled cell distribution, fiber alignment, and biomechanical properties. This review explores recent advances in ۳D bioprinting for tendon regeneration, focusing on biomaterials, cell sources, and scaffold fabrication techniques. Recent research has demonstrated that hybrid bio-inks, made from both natural materials (collagen I, fibrin, decellularized extracellular matrix) and synthetic polymers (PCL, PLA, silk fibroin) can significantly improve biocompatibility and mechanical strength. Tendon-derived stem cells (TDSCs), mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) have demonstrated high viability and tenogenic differentiation when incorporated into bioprinted constructs. Additionally, recent in vitro and in vivo studies indicate improved extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition, collagen fiber organization, and functional integration of bioprinted tendons. Despite these advancements, vascularization, mechanical durability, and regulatory hurdles remain major challenges for clinical translation. Future research should focus on bioactive scaffold designs, AI-driven bioprinting, and large-scale preclinical validation to bridge the gap between laboratory research and real-world applications. With continued innovation, ۳D bioprinted tendons could revolutionize regenerative medicine, offering personalized, functional, and long-lasting solutions for patients with tendon injuries.

کلیدواژه ها:

۳D bioprinting ، tendon regeneration ، tissue engineering ، bioinks ، scaffolds ، stem cells ، extracellular matrix ، regenerative medicine