Islamic architecture بخش دوم

بخش دوم مقاله چاپ شده در مجله science publishing در امریکا

Brief history of Islamic periods

Muslim (Arab) attack on Afghanistan, during the caliphate of Rashidin Caliphs 661-632 AD. done. After defeating the Sassanids in the Qadisiyah and Nahavand battles (642 AD), the Arab armies rushed to the east. The resistance of the stubborn native people of this land was a serious obstacle for the Arabs of Biangard. In this way, the rapid progress of Islam in this land, which went through Kandahar and Ghazni towards the heart of Afghanistan, became a slow and difficult progress, the Kabul Shahs (Ratbil Shahs or Hindu Shahs) were the leaders of the resistance in Kabul. The importance of Kabul city surpassed Kapisa during the rule of this dynasty. Finally, Kabul was conquered by the Arabs in 664 after a one-year siege. Abu Rihan Biruni, the historian of the Ghaznavid era, in a report of his trip to India in the book of research of Mullahand, looked at the standing of the Kabul Shahs with respect: "Now that the Hindu Shahs have become extinct, and there is no one left from this dynasty, we must say, with all the glory and Their majesty, they never failed to do what was right, they were noble and noble men.

- Taharian: 821-872 A.D.: only in Herat and Badghis districts

- Safarian: 861-1002 A.D.: in Bust and Sistan; 875-900 AD: in the Kandahar area

-Samaritans: 875-999 AD: in Herat, Badghis, Balkh, and Badakhshan regions; 980-900 AD: in Kandahar area; and 999-910 A.D.: in the areas of Bust and Sistan

- Ghaznavis: 962-1148 A.D.: in Ghazni; 1148-986 AD: in Kabul and Kandahar; 1148-999 AD: in Jalalabad, Bust and Sistan; and 1038-999 AD: in Herat, Badghis, Balkh and Badakhshan

- Seljuqs: 1038-1153 A.D.: only in Herat, Badghis, Balkh, and Badakhshan regions.

- Georgian: 1148-1214 AD. In 1140, Aladdin Ghori, known as Jahansuz, set Ghazni on fire, and in 535 AH (1140 AD), the Ghorians captured the glorious city of Ghazni, which was once called the bride of cities. Alauddin Ghori, known as Jahansoz, set fire to this beautiful city, pulled out the bodies of Ghaznavid sultans, Mehr Mahmud and his son Masoud, from the graves, and burned them. Ghorians, who always dreamed of reaching the fertile land of India, left for India as soon as possible after destroying Ghazni. One of the Georgian Turkish slaves named Qutbuddin took possession of the throne and crown of Delhi, and after him, the Turkish slaves held this throne and crown for a century.

- Khwarazmshahs: 1219 to about 1248

- Mongol attack: 1221 AD. Genghis 1155 to 1227

- Ilkhanian: 1335-1256 AD: in Herat and Badghis districts

- Al-Kart:1245-1381 A.D.: only in Herat and Badghis districts

- Kayanian: 1260-1381 A.D.: only in Bost and Sistan regions

- Chaghtais: 1330-1381 AD in Balkh, Badakhshan, Kabul, Jalalabad, Ghazni and Kandahar regions

- Timurians: 1381-1506 AD

Timur Lang from 1336 to 1405. Timur Lang traveled across the Hindu Kush several times under the tutelage of his soldiers; His most famous campaigns were carried out in 801 AH (1398 AD), during which India was conquered and Delhi was looted, and once again after Genghis, these areas were plundered and destroyed. [14]

​ With the death of Timur in 807 AH, his fourth son Shahrukh took over the government of Herat and Mawr'anhar. He chose Herat as his capital, repaired and rebuilt its walls, and built luxurious buildings there, and this city became an important political and commercial center of the region. In these years, architects, painters, scholars, researchers, and musicians were honored and honored a lot. The greatest miniaturist artist, Ustad Kamaluddin Behzad, was born in Herat around 844 AH (1440 AD) and lived in the court of Sultan Hossein Baiqra, the last Timurid prince. Most of the hundred years of the Timurid rule in Afghanistan witnessed the prosperity and progress of this country. Zahiruddin Muhammad Babar was the eldest son of Omar Sheikh, the Timurid prince who ruled Ferghana. He chose it as his center. After the conquest of India, he never returned to Kabul, but according to his will, his body was brought to this city after his death and buried in a garden he had built called Bagh Babur.

- Safavids: 1502 to 1722, Mirwais in Kandahar 1708. Gurkans in India 1526 to 1858. Babur 1526 to 1530

- Hotakian 1709-1738 AD: in Kandahar; 1722-1738 AD: in the districts of Sistan, Bust, Herat, Badghis

- Afsharians 1747-1738 AD: in Kandahar, Bust, and Sistan; 1750-1738 AD: in Herat and Badghis[20]

3-1 Formation of the Afghan government

In 1747, Ahmad Shah Abdali established a government in the current Afghanistan. Encyclopaedia Britannica called the reign of Ahmad Shah Durrani the last Afghan emperor. This encyclopedia adds that the empire of Ahmad Shah Durrani was the second empire of the Islamic world after the Ottoman Empire in the second half of the 18th century, whose territory spanned from Mashhad to Delhi and from the Amu Darya to the Arabian Sea. Considered the founder of modern Afghanistan, he writes: "Ahmed Shah wisely laid the foundation of a great empire. At the time of his death, his possessions extended from West Khorasan to Sirhand and from Amu to the Indian Sea, and he had obtained all this either by concluding a treaty or by taking it practically (by the force of the sword). Since 1160 AH (1747 AD) the independent government of Afghanistan has always been in the hands of two families from the Abdali clan. From 1160 AH (1747 AD) to 1251 AH (1835 AD) the throne of this country was in the hands of the Saduzais, And after that, it belonged to the Mohammadzai family who were from the same clan. [15]

After the death of Amir Habibullah Khan, his third son, Amanullah Khan, took over his father's throne and crown. and was accepted as the king of Afghanistan. Mohammad Nader Shah-Mohammed Zahir Shah-Mohammad Zahir was only 19 years old when he succeeded his father. Mohammad Zahir was less than ten years old when he was sent to France. He lived in Europe until he was sixteen. From 1973 onwards, Afghanistan was caught in civil wars, the communist era (1978-1992) and the Mujahideen and Taliban era (1992-2001). In 2001, the first and second government of Karzai Sahib, and in 2012, the third government of Dr. Ashraf Ghani, and in 2020, it was again captured by Talian.

4- Architecture in Afghanistan

Architecture is the art and science of designing buildings and other physical structures. More comprehensive definitions consider architecture to include the design of the entire artificial environment, from urban design and landscape design to micro-design of building details and even furniture design.

For thousands of years, the culture of different civilizations such as Achaemen, Persians, Greeks, Buddhists, and Muslims has affected Afghanistan. The signs of these cultures and civilizations can be seen all over the country and in different buildings. From the city of Balkh to the south of the beautiful city of Kandahar and the cities of Herat and Bamyan. [16]

It should be noted that today the word "architecture" is used with two related meanings:

First: Architecture is a "process of organizing space" which is a creative activity and is based on scientific experiment, art, and technology and this impression is mostly made by architects.

Second: Architecture is considered as the "result of organizing space", which means that it refers to the buildings that have undergone this process before their construction. This perception is mostly used by archaeologists and architectural historians. [17]

Greeks were able to build cities and castles in Herat, Kandahar, Mazar-i-Sharif, Parvan, and Badakhshan by Greek architects. After the Greeks, the Western Greeks built beautiful buildings. After the defeat of the Sikh army, the Greek Bactrians established a government in southern Afghanistan or Kabulistan.

It wasn't long before Greek architectural art collided with Indian architectural art and they created Gandhara art, which was unparalleled in its era. Afghan engineers draw all the designs on the skin until the paper arrives. After the arrival of the Arabs, engineers learned to use pen and paper.

Due to the lack of research on engineering and architecture in Afghanistan, the only place where some of the works are currently available and safe is Kabul. The only book available in this field is an introduction to the history of architecture and urban planning in Afghanistan. In the buildings of Kabul, plaster was used a lot inside their rooms. In the four corners of the room, they used plaster columns with engravings. The ceiling of the room was plastered with shapes. First, they used to put a wire mesh on the ceiling, then they would pour plaster over it. Then they poured all kinds of flowers and plaster lines in wooden molds and installed them on the ceiling with plaster. Kabul architects were famous for this style. [18]

In a place called a Cement House, old clothes, eggs, plaster, etc. were made by hand. Then they bring it to the city on horses and donkeys and sell it. Kabul had about one hundred thousand citizens in 1259. In 1155, Kabul had only ten thousand citizens when the capital of Afghanistan moved from Kandahar to Kabul. At that time, villa houses reached 2-3 floors, these houses were surrounded by four walls.

This quadrangle had only one entrance. in which metal carvings were sometimes seen. The bends and turns of its narrow alleys were smelly. These alleys are intersected by ditches. Stream water poured into ditches. The toilets were generally located on the roofs and projected directly into the alleys. And you cause a stench in the streets.

People only took care of the environment of the house, work, and mosque and did not pay attention to the street and public places. The internal order was much better than the external space of the house. [19]

When Abdur Rahman Khan became president in 1260 and decided to build his palace outside his four-wall mansion. He built his main residence in the northern part of the Kabul River, which is now known as New City.

Abdul Rahman Khan developed a completely new way of life in Afghanistan. That is external engineering that pays more attention to the outside in addition to the previous buildings that paid more attention to the inside. , the facades were facing the gardens. Abdur Rahman Khan applied his ideas and plans in the field of engineering.

Arched corridors, which were a type of Middle Asian engineering, were seen in his buildings. Abdul Rahman Khan lived in Bukhara for many years in exile before becoming an emir. Naturally, during those years, Bukhara was more advanced than Kabul, and all kinds of buildings with square plans were used. Bukhara was at the height of architecture and art during the Samanid period and trained many artists and engineers. [20]

Abdul Rahman Khan mostly used square, simple, and one-story maps. which includes the central dome, and an octagonal public hall with square rooms, each corner of which was connected by columned corridors. Building facades were generally made of plaster and lime.

Amir Habibullah Khan 1280-1298 paid more attention to Indian style and engineering. This type of engineering was similar to military shelters with sloping roofs. Sardar Nasrullah Khan, the second son of Abdul Rahman Khan, brought a major change in the field of engineering in Afghanistan at the beginning of the 20th century. Sardar Nasrullah Khan went to London in 1274 at the invitation of Queen Victoria of England. During his stay there, he lived in one of the Italian Renaissance houses.

The map of Ayn's house attracted him a lot and when he returned to Kabul, he brought the map of this house with him. He built an example of this house in his palace in Kabul and named it after Zinul Amara. Considering life in Europe and seeing the beautiful French and German cities, Amir Amanullah Khan brought most of the European maps to Kabul and there was no more information about the historical maps and traditional architecture of Afghanistan, he built a building named Ain al-Amara. [21]

In addition, Amir Amanullah introduced other decorations related to the flame-like decorations that were popular in French Gothic engineering into Islamic engineering, such as the projection on the second floor, and the sign of the wreath above the gate. Shah Amanullah Khan's biggest plan was to design a city called Darul Aman, which was 9 kilometers away from New City.

Dar al-Aman Palace, which is the first concrete and adobe building in Afghanistan, was built in this city and the center of the city. In 2017, according to the decree of the president, the author of the article and his team began to rebuild it and it was completed in 2019.

The Shah of Afghanistan requested the municipality of Berlin to send their engineers to Kabul. However, his plan was not accepted by the king. Later, the Shah turned to the newly arrived engineer Ander Godard, who had arrived in Kabul with the French archaeologists. Goddard's plan was accepted by the king. Then, the design of German engineers for the Dar al-Aman palace was accepted by the king, and in 1301 he issued the first construction law or regulation. In this regulation, everyone was encouraged to build buildings. Land was given for free to those who built a house by construction standards within a year. Another change of Amanullah Khan was to move the capital from Kabul to Paghman, which was located 20 kilometers away.

At the entrance of Paghman, on the occasion of commemorating Afghanistan's independence, he created a building named Taq Zafar. This arch was similar to a building located in Paris. After that, all the king's dependents built houses similar to European houses on the outskirts of public areas and public gardens. [22]

The public area of the city was built with a mosque, an exhibition, a hospital, a library, a hotel, and teahouses equipped with theaters and music venues.

In the construction regulations of Dar al-Aman, the construction law was stated in such a way that not only the houses should be visible from the outside, but the houses should be built at a distance of about 15 meters from each other and about 10 meters behind the entrance.

In this sense, the whole city resembled a big garden. This design can be considered the modern city garden of its time. In the 20th century, city planners concluded that living in a garden would have an effect on the morale of citizens and reduce crime. Now, 100 years ago, what advanced thinking did Shah Amanullah Khan have that created the city garden?

The architects used to draw the maps keeping in mind the pictures of buildings that were in European and American magazines. Even many members of the royal family had turned into well-known architects. The changes of Nader Shah's government can also be seen in terms of urban development. The aforementioned transferred all royal properties to the public treasury. Later, he canceled the work of extending the city of Dar al-Aman and instead moved the city from the southwest of Kabul to the northwest. During the reign of Zahir Shah, when Shah Mahmood Khan, the chancellor of Afghanistan, could not establish a strong relationship between the American and Afghan governments, he was removed from his position, and Daud Khan, the son of Zahir Shah's uncle, became the chancellor. [23]

When tensions arose between America and Afghanistan, Dawood Khan tried to strengthen the relationship with the Soviet Union. Soviet aid and cooperation continued from 1340-1371. Three decades of Soviet technical and professional assistance and cooperation left a tremendous change in Afghanistan's engineering.

Most public projects and infrastructure were built by the Soviet government. During the time that the Russians were in Afghanistan, they usually built residential blocks in Mazar-e-Sharif, Kabul, and Shaberghan. The presence of Russians in the field of architecture, urban planning, and infrastructure of Afghanistan was a blessing for Afghanistan, but unfortunately, it was not used. More than 90 percent of Afghanistan's infrastructure and basic buildings and maps were created during the Russian era. Unfortunately, in the 15 years of the new government, basic work has not been done in the infrastructure sector, and more attention has been paid to the appearance of the projects than to the infrastructure. The main reason was the existence of non-professional ministers and experts and reliance on the Ministry of Urban Development and Housing. [24]

From 1380 onwards, the speed of construction and workload increased in Afghanistan, but unfortunately, all styles and types of buildings were disorderly and chaotic. Many construction methods have been imported from neighboring countries such as Pakistan, Iran, and many Arab countries, and even from distant countries such as Europe and America, mixed with Afghan methods. Many of the city's citizens do not see Kabul as an Afghan city. Expert engineers know that the infrastructure is the foundation of a city, but in these 15 years, no basic infrastructure work has been done, and it has been spent on advertising and opening projects full of problems and principles. For example, which department of Kabul city has sewage, where is the basic heating system, and where is the water supply and sewerage system? Unfortunately, due to the lack of knowledge and science in Afghanistan, people are playing games with the opening of insignificant and baseless engineering projects, while the water situation in Kabul has reached a dangerous level.