<span lang="EN-CA">Synthesis Strategies for Graphene Oxide: A Review

Graphene oxide (GO) remains one of the most versatile and technologically significant graphene derivatives due to its tunable chemistry, high dispersibility, and broad application potential. The synthesis route plays a decisive role in determining GO’s structural, chemical, and functional characteristics. This review systematically evaluates both traditional synthesis approaches, including Brodie, Staudenmaier, Hofmann, and Hummers methods, and modern, environmentally oriented strategies such as the Tour method, ferrate- and chromate-based oxidations, Oxone and peroxidic systems, as well as electrochemical, sonochemical (Ultrasound assisted), hydrothermal, solvothermal, microwave-assisted, and plasma-assisted routes. Classical wet-chemical oxidation provides high oxidation degrees but suffers from long reaction times, hazardous byproducts, and extensive defect formation. Modern methods improve safety, minimize chemical waste, enhance process control, and enable tailored functionalization. Electrochemical, microwave-assisted, and ultrasound-based systems deliver rapid oxidation and high monolayer yields, whereas ferrate and peroxide routes align strongly with green-chemistry principles. Process intensification methods - particularly hybrid electrochemical-sonochemical systems - show promise for industrial scalability. Collectively, the comparative analysis highlights the ongoing shift from aggressive acid-based oxidants toward cleaner, safer, and more controllable synthesis platforms. The review also discusses major challenges, including defect management, structural homogeneity, oxidation uniformity, and scale-up limitations. Future perspectives indicate that hybrid, low-waste, and fully controllable oxidation systems will define the next generation of GO technologies.

کلیدواژه ها:

graphene oxide ، Reduced graphene Oxide ، graphene derivatives ، advanced materials ، Nanotechnology ، Sustainable energy