Antibiotic Resistance in Bacteria: Mechanisms, Clinical Challenges, and Strategies for Mitigation

Antibiotic resistance is one of the most serious threats to global public health in the twenty-first century, formally designated by the World Health Organization as a top-ten global health crisis. It arises from a combination of natural evolutionary processes and selective pressures created by the misuse and overuse of antimicrobial agents in human medicine, veterinary practice, and agriculture. This extended review examines the classification of antibiotics by mechanism of action, the molecular and genetic mechanisms underlying resistance, the role of biofilms, the global epidemiological burden, detailed case studies of clinically important resistant organisms, laboratory methods for detecting resistance, the history of antibiotic discovery and the subsequent “discovery void,” the economic impact of resistance, global policy responses under the One Health framework, and emerging strategies from phage therapy to novel regulatory incentive models aimed at addressing this crisis. The evidence indicates that an effective, durable response requires a coordinated, multidisciplinary, and international approach.

کلیدواژه ها:

antibiotic resistance ، bacteria ، resistance genes ، biofilm ، superbug